Introduction: Asian Studies at the Millennium
Dawn
The
idea behind this collection of articles and essays was/is to examine the state
of fitness of Asian countries to assume the tasks of sharing in the
responsibilities of regional and global interaction. The question therefore
about whether the Asian continent as a whole was mature enough in the aftermath
of colonial subjugation, and consequent retardation, to be able to assume its
tasks in the community of nations comes foremost to mind. No such evaluation
can however be exhaustive, given the enormous land mass under consideration,
but, in order to arrive at a just appraisal of its potential capacity and
future roles, it was thought also necessary to bear in mind the rich Asian
national and/or ethnic heritages which enter into the composition of every
culture and every people on this ancient continent. Most of the authors in one
way or another contribute towards this overall picture. And it is hoped what is
left unsaid will have been understood by the profound insights provided by the
topics under discussion by some of the leading experts in their respective
fields of research.
No
statement about Asia as an entity which conforms to its geographical
demarcations can be held to be true with its constituent regional parts, much
less to countries within traditionally upheld national boundaries. What is true
of one area or nation is not necessarily true, or verifiable, with a
corresponding territory within the continent. Of the seven continents, it is
the largest in size while making up more than three-fifths of the world’s
population. A recent correspondence in the American Asian Studies Newsletter even questioned the usefulness of
continuing to publish the The Journal of
Asian Studies, since Asianists normally looked to the numerous specialist journals
in the area of their research for their reading and reference. Every region, area, and country, discipline and
historical period is well and truely represented by academic and/or popular
periodicals in diverse languages.
Asian Studies
Asian
studies span a vast and incongruent realm, or rather spheres or zones of land
masses, that make comprehensive academic interest and concertation hardly
possible, or even worth the effort, for the individual Asianist. A sinologist
can hardly pretend to be academically interested in South Asian issues in much
the same way as a Dravidologist could claim specialist skills in Inner Asian
topics. Delegates to any Asian studies conference soon find themselves locked
in nuclear-bunker-like academic compartments which make the crossing of even
language borders, or the linguistic no-man’s-land, a veritable risk. The
pitfalls of border-crossing even within disciplines and/or historical periods
are, to say the least, legion. Yet, Asian studies as a subject and as a field
of research has commanded the talents of academic journalists all over the
world. The eminently long-standing and flourishing Journal of Asian Studies is enough proof of this
«continentalisation » of material under the pretext that what happens in
one area of its department will be held to produce effects in another. But
then, this is true of almost any continent or country in the world. The
far-reaching effects of the 1996- economic crisis in Thailand and the currency
problems in some Far Eastern and Southeast Asian countries may be used as
examples to disprove such a specially Asian cohesive bloc and/or equally
exclusive « academic » area of reflection.
As
custom would have it, broadly speaking Asian studies normally should encompass
regions as unwieldy and disparate - even from a linguistic point of view - as
East Asia [Far East] (China - including Taiwan, Japan, and the two Koreas);
Southeast Asia (Vietnam, Cambodia, Laos, Thailand, Myanmar, Malaysia,
Singapore, Brunei, Indonesia, the Phillippines, Papua, New Guinea, and possibly
East Timor); Inner Asia (Mongolia, Outer Mongolia and Siberia); South Asia
(India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Nepal, Sri Lanka, and the Andaman,
Nicobar, and Maldive Islands, etc.); Southwest Asia (Iran, Iraq, Syria, Lebanon,
Israel, the Palestinian Authority, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Bahrain, the Emirates,
Yemen, and other Arabian enclaves), and the Central Asian Republics
(Afghanistan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan, Tajikistan, Kyrgystan).
Other classifications and/or regroupings maybe possible: China and Inner Asia,
Northeast Asia (the two Koreas and Japan), Southeast Asia, South Asia
(including Afghanistan), and Southwest Asia and the Central Asian Republics.
The latter regions, however, have received less attention in specialist media
coverage and in Asian studies programmes, for the simple reason, one suspects,
that their proximity and intimate connections to Maghrebian and Northeast
African states sets them apart from the rest of the Asian countries. Even if Moslem
Turkey forms an integral part of this huge stringed-out land mass, it now
bestrides both the European and Middle-or-Near Eastern regions in its
aspirations.
In
this outline of area studies within Asia, Asian-Asianists might very well want
to include Micronesia, Melanesia, Polynesia, Oceania, Maori, and Australian
aboriginal territories as well in the larger Asian and Asian-Pacific studies
prospectus, under the pretext that the inhabitants of these areas are
essentially of Asian origin, invoking at the same time the concept of race and ethnie as a yardstick by which to
demarcate their larger specialties. If this definition may be accepted as a
valid academic concept of compartmentalization, then further questions may be
raised as to the validity of already well-established academic specialties,
such as, the place of Sri Lankan Veddhas, Papua-New Guinean and
Russian-Siberian populations. And again, to which area studies would the
Maghrebian and Northeast African countries belong? - if not to the programme of
Asian studies?
There is however yet another « definition » or concept worth
exploring, though it might seem at first encounter counter-productive and less
acceptable in prnciple. And this is the idea based on common history and/or
common experience, the difference between the two terms being defined by
« events », on the one hand, and « attitudes », on the
other. In one way or another, the entire Asian Continent (with some exceptions
like Thailand though these exceptions, too, have not escaped the fallout from
the Colonial Asian echiquier) has
been subject to some sort of Euro-American or Western colonial and/or
ideological authority during the past few centuries. This common experience
alone is sufficient to bind the Asian peoples into a recognisable whole worthy
of being studied for their reactions to these « foreign » systems and
for their attitudes which will necessarily condition their future development
in the New Millennium.
It
might be recalled with some advantage that there was a time when the major part
of the continent had for long periods at a stretch breathed Buddhism as a creed
and practised the faith as a code of behaviour, and this fact alone could
subsume and characterise the fundamental weltanschauung
of its prodigious masses, while laying the foundation on which Asia came to
project a vision of itself as an integral whole even before the advent of the
Middle Ages.
The Euro-Asiatic
Connection and American tutelage
Asia
has always fascinated the West. And to repay the kindness, Asians themselves
today strive to live like Europeans, just as everybody all over the world is
gradually aspiring to or is forced to partake of the late European Century. Greek and Roman (and in their wake Egyptian and
Arabian) commercial and cultural intercourse with Southern Tamil-India before
and after the early Christian era as demonstrated by the Periplus of the Erythrean Sea of the 2nd century A.D.; the thirst
for adventure that drove Marco Polo and his predeccessors and successors to take
to the Silk Road; the endless incursions and settlements of European voyagers
on the Asian shores, following the scent of cinnamon, cloves, nutmeg and pepper
along the Spice Route from Alexandria, Salalah, Muscat, Calicat and Cochin to
Malacca and the Moluccas since the 15th century, and in their footsteps
followed the precursor pilot-administrations of colonialism’s East India
companies and the zealous missionaries intent on conversion, all have until the
late nineteen-sixties contributed to this mutual fascination. All the abuses of
human rights are probably gradually being consciously forgotten, for the simple
reason that it is precisely European and Western knowhow and technology,
industrial culture, and imported political ideologies, civil and military
instituitions which have paved the way for the entry of Asia into the New
Millennium within the span of a mere forty years. The former colonial nations
no longer have a European Quarter in Shanghai where they can put up such
minatory notices at restaurants and parks: « Dogs and Chinese Not
Allowed ». The former colonialist powers, including the USA, are often
seen today to be competitive partners in this venture of building a New Asia.
The
exception to a certain extent is still America. From the role of the great
liberator from the rigours of Tojo’s Greater
East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere, America has gradually worked through a wide
spectrum of incompatible roles: « Ugly American », Big-Brother, Uncle
Sam, Fulbright-benefactor, Peace Corps helper to that of big-bully and World
Cop. Asians find it quite difficult to adjust themselves to this new game plan.
Thus the Second World War which heralded the end of the Colonial Era in Asia
proclaimed the advent of a new era in « neo-colonial » politics never
before experienced by the Asian. It was enough for the man who authorised the
explosion of two atomic bombs in the midst of populous island-cities to decide,
soon after, the fate of Asians in the latter half of the 20th century. « We are fighting in Korea for our own
security and survival, » said President Harry S.Truman, after
committing U.S.troops in Korea without first obtaining congressional consent.
The Gulf of Tonkin incident, avowed later by the American Defence Secretary
Robert McNamara as a put-up job, permitted the dropping of more TNT on Vietnam
than all the bombs dropped during the last world war. With the exception of the
war-weary Vietnam veterans and legions of students in the States, nobody really
seemed to mind this more-than-unequal contest of strengths perpetrated in the
name of the domino theory in
Southeast Asia. Only the prospect of the People’s Republic of China becoming
the world’s greatest power in the 21st Century drove doubts to arise in the
role of America in Asia. In the meantime, this great and ancient civilization
is being bear-baited. The American Asianist and archaeologist Alfonz Lengyel
puts this point across squarely.
We need to recognize that China bashing will lead Asianists nowhere. We
should understand that our own democracy was not developed overnight.
It took almost 200 years to create the 1960s civil rights legislation,
and our
civil rights laws are still not perfect. Why should we expect the
Chinese leaders
to copy our systems in less than twenty years? [...] Now, as a rising
economic
giant, China has come to be seen by the world’s economic leaders as a
menace
rather than as a useful partner. So now we become China bashers.
[Lengyel 1998:15A-B]
The
real reason perhaps is that no other populous nation in Asia carried through a
fundamental grass-roots revolution, with power residing potentially in the
hands of the masses. Elsewhere, and now also in China, corruption is rife,
barring certain safe pockets like Singapore. The colonialists have been
replaced by their own upper-crust castes and Western-educated elites [made up
in Tarzie Vittachi’s terminology of Brown Sahibs, W(estern) O(riental) G(entlemen), Black Europeans, or the
clubby beer-swilling military types, and equally aristocratic Mem-Sahibs] with
hefty sums stached away in numbered Swiss bank-accounts, and even if their
numbers are dwindling, they have brought up their own « native
following » in their own image. Only in 1998, with the appointment of
Nagarajan Vittal, as Chief of the Central Vigilance Commission, the Indian
Prime Minister Atal Behari Vajpayee [Mazumdar 2000: 24-25] set the ball rolling
to wipe out widespread corruption and announce a new era of freedom from
treachery in India. Yet, almost everywhere in the former European colonies and
protected states the gulf between the haves and have-nots is still too wide to
be bridged in the coming decades, even if corruption may look like being
stamped out.
Of
course, the question of from which directions would come the dangers to their
livelihood and national identity and/or safety in the New Millennium continue
to haunt the Asians for the common experience of having seen their lands become
the playing and hunting grounds of the white colonial nations for so many
centuries remains hidden, for the moment at least, in the Asian sub-conscious.
When relatively impoverished nations stockpile nuclear missiles the syndrome is
clear, and just as understandable. These nations would at the same time accord
little credulity to such threats as invoked by Samuel Huntington in his
« The Clash of Civilizations? » [Huntington 1993: 22-49] His very
definition of civilization as being « the highest cultural grouping of
people and the broadest level of cultural identity people have » - given
the present context in the era of cultural globalization and/or widespread
cultural miscegenation and racial cross-breeding - in the long run begs the
question, even if he accords an important place for ethnicity and religious
commonality which differentiate his eight major civilizational factions. Wars
or civil wars, or threats to existence and/or minimum survival standards,
caused by the encroachment or confounding of frontiers (even if they stand out
as psychic or cultural threats to co-existence within a state) are not
necessarily going to be fought over specific issues of history, language,
culture, tradition, common objectives and so forth, or over and in what
Huntington specifically designates as the « cultural fault lines »
separating civilizations, in spite of his striving to palliate his premises in
his conclusions.
By
contrast, the lasting difference between the Asian peoples in general and the
developed Western nations still remains the common centuries-old colonial
experience, or rather « the common
colonial complex » as I see it, even in an era of the
« equality » of nations where territorial safeguards and
international guarantees proliferate, and this difference might continue to
wreak havoc in beaten-down psyches. New wars may be fought on « imagined » compulsive responses
to equally « imagined » threats, or on the « imagined »
pretexts of foreign powers in Asia fearing for their own survival thousands of
miles away.
There can yet be another reason for change on the face of the Asian map.
The enormous pressure of migratory forces from the Siberian northern wastes
which caused the Barbarians, Goths, Visigoths, Celts, Huns, and Aryans to flood
the temperate and torrid climes, changing as it were the map of the known world
then, may yet have its counterpart in times to come when equatorial dwellers
might seek fresher climes to escape the ecological disasters through the
over-heating of the planet. In the same way, the primary cause of discontent which
has existed between « believers » and « non-believers » is
not likely to disappear nor is it likely to respect civilizational or cultural
homogeneity. And religion which has still more and more a racial or ethnic
stigma, and following, would remain the decisive divisive factor, prodding the
will to assert the right to proclaim God, yet once again, as an inalienable
racial possession..
Is there a role for
the Asian-Asianist?
If the Asian peoples as a whole
are to be free, and equal in their image as nations, the deplorable economic
conditions in which the vast majority still flounder must be succoured. There
can be little use in spending valuable foreign currency in the hope of amassing
conventional and nuclear arsenals if the basic requirements of hygiene in the
day-to-day life of the masses are not provided for immediately, nor if medical
treatment and potable water needs cannot be accessed freely at little or no
cost. Wars these days only benefit certain politicians, government officials,
and/or ambitious generals while enriching beyond all measure the multi-national
manufacturers of high-tech military weaponry. The British colonial policy of divide et impera which earned Great
Britain the vastest empire in history is still at work in the Indian
sub-continent. And the South-Asian is still not the wiser.
The
American sociologist Edward Shils made a fairly-accurate reasoned guess on the
state of intellectuality, creativity, and cultural achievement in Asian
countries in his essay, « The Asian Intellectual » [Shils 1969:
621-635], but the picture he painted while remaining the same at some levels,
and in some cases, has since the sixties gone through innumerous revisions,
and, today, at the advent of the New Millennium Asians are almost everywhere in
charge of their common destinies and are seriously vying with one another with
success. At the same time in some essential respects they have not quite broken
away from the India and Japan Arthur Koestler described in his book, The Lotus and the Robot [Koestler 1960],
though the Asian might even today recoil at Koestler’s judgement that he was
happy to be back from his Asian tour - a European.
Asian studies can only make sense for the Asians if they can pull the
wool away from the Asian leaders’s eyes and show them the way out and into
providing for a more humane way of life for its teeming masses, free from the
dangers of treacherous national felo-de-se
perpetrated by the few in their midst, and free from the hand-to-mouth
existence which has and is keeping the vast majority of Asians still back in
the dark ages. Asian studies for the Asian should not become a mere heartless
toil to attain diplomas and degrees and/or lucrative jobs.
In
the ultimate analysis, Asia and Asians¸ and mutatis
mutandis Asian studies as a whole,
spring from a certain idea or ideas rather than from a continent of
several nations or a specific field of research. In effect, Asia is a composite
idea, madeup of race-based ideas. These ideas represent the largest land mass
and the largest populations en bloc in
contradistinction to the European-White, African-Black, and Amerindian races of
the world. Asian studies, therefore, constitute the programmed study of these
non-white to non-black races (though mostly exclusive of the Semitic or other
populations of North Africa and the Middle East), their habitats, their past
heritages, and their various worlds as seen through the eyes of specialists
called Asianists who have often little in common with one another than their
area of primary interest. In an era of shrinking globalization, one might
legitimately ask if such studies and their media coverage have their raison d’être ensured to last through
the New Millennium. Given the fast inter(net)-connecting, rapidly gaining
intellectually mono-lingual global village and the increasing rate of
hyperspecialisation, can the Asianist hold and justify his ground at one and
the same time?
Publishing in Asian
Studies
One
last word about publishing on Asian subjects in the Asian studies media. Let’s
face it, most - if not all the known publications - of Asian studies magazines,
reviews, and journals emanate from the West. Asians still have to have recourse
to Western publications to air their views on Asia; in other words, to the
former colonial powers who would filter their thoughts back to Asians. Any
contributor to these publications knows the rigours of arbitrary
« revamping » or else « ditching » by all-knowing editors.
A recent editorial in the International Institute
of Asian Studies Newsletter, circulated gratis, carried an amazing admission of its contents.
It [the IIAS Newsletter] has been designed as an informal channel for
all
colleagues in Asian Studies: a loosely-structured pamphlet-like project,
its
pages crowded with all kinds of information. See it as a sign of life, a
postcard
from the IIAS, to be read in
between activities or in bed on a Sunday morning
and then to be discarded: use it to
wrap your fresh fish in or to stuff your wet
shoes with after a rainy day.(my italics) [Stokhof 1999: 2B]
Can
these very « colleagues » of the supervisory powers of Asianists think
that they are being taken seriously after these very insouciant and
condescending words? Asian Asianists cannot be blamed for feeling thwarted in
their efforts to set the balance right. An eminent Asian man of letters, whose
contributions in the field of Anglo-American studies in the West have been
integrated into the specialty’s teaching canon, was moved to comment on hearing
of the existence of JIAS: « Clearly,
it is important that a magazine about Asia should be published in Asia and
reflect Asian views rather than Western interpretations of those views. » [Quoting
from an undated letter to the editor.]
On the other hand, Wendy Doniger, President of the American Association
of Asian Studies, talking of India attempts a more balanced stance between
Anti-Orientalism and Post-Coloniality.
Anti-Orientalism has led in many quarters to a disregard for the
philology and
basic textual work that the Orientalists did very well and that still
remains the
basis of sound scholarship about India. This need not be so. The
original anti-
Orientalist agenda was monolithic in ways that soon came to be modified,
by
Edward Said himself, among others, and by James C.Scott. We have learned
to
see not just oppressors and victims but oppressors and resisters,
subverters, people
who knew, and know, how to wield the weapons of the weak.
[Doniger 1999: 944]
The contributions
Articles and essays in this issue, though reflecting both in their
subject matter and viewpoints a wide spectrum of perspectives can hardly convey
the complexity and breadth of the fields of research in Asian studies. The
reader can only sample the wide variety of topics and fill in the blank spaces,
himself. Opinions expressed or views extrapolated by the authors of course only
engage the responsibilities of the authors, themselves, and are in no way a
reflection of the journal or editor’s policies
or credos. The journal merely provides a platform for an open debate on all
Asian topics from every point of view.
Hall Gardner, a young political science
professor at the American University of Paris, who had acquired some first-hand
experience in China while teaching at The John Hopkins-Nanjing Center for
Chinese and American Studies, takes a deep « impartial » look -
though his general concerns evince somewhat American in stance - at
« China and [its] International Relations in the New Millennium ».
Working from the premises of the transformation of China into an amphibious
power during the Ming (1368-1644) and Qing (1644-1911) dynasties, he draws
comparisons with the triphibious power that China has become ever since, and
argues her case in the present transformative epoch that « could change
not only the regional, but also the global, equilibrium. » His incisive
analyses of China’s role and relations with her neighbours gauged from
historical bases of assessment, and her adept adaptations to the policies of
the Russian and Western powers in the wake of her top-power New Millennium
status make for much stimulating reading. I look forward to an indigenous -
inner « Other » - point of view on the same subject for the next
volume.
The
inclusion of Ananda K.Coomaraswamy’s
essay: « Introduction to the Art
of Eastern Asia » is made on merit alone, for the breadth and scholarship
of this late scholar of world renown has to be acknowledged without reserve.
The essay focusses on a vast area of exploration covering as it were the art of
almost all the major streams of Asian cultures, while comparing and contrasting
these with European art and aesthetic standards. Art in Asia is a direly
neglected but highly treasured Asian heritage.
Wang Gungwu, one of the foremost
historians on China and Southeast Asia, focusses in « Transforming the
Trading World of Southeast Asia » on the role of the entrepreneurial
classes in Asia which have until the 20th century been prevented from sharing
political power. Wang says: « After centuries spent struggling vainly for
status, indigenous merchants [of Southeast Asia] have transformed their
relations with those in power. » He expects them « to be partners in
the power structures of the next [the present] millennium ». In his essay
Wang shows how this power-sharing process came about, and the political clout
this new class of Asians is likely to wield in the New Millennium.
Wang Ning, a young and prolific
critic-professor of comparative literature and cultural studies at the Peking
Language and Culture University, discourses with verve on the future of
traditional Chinese learning (guoxue) in relation to
« West-centric » sinological studies (hanxue) in an age of
globalization confronted by the rise of popular culture, and he makes a plea in
favour of the acceptance of the findings of indigenous Chinese scholars by
(Western) sinologists in their assessment of Chinese studies and culture. Here
then is a determined exposition of the argument of the « Other » projected
in postcolonial theory.
Asmah Haji Omar, an authority on
Malaysian linguistics, reports on her research in « Verbal and Non-Verbal
Symbols: An Investigation into Their Role in Self and Group
Identification » which « attempts to look at identity and its
linguistic correlates at various levels: the community, the group and the
individual ». In the multi-lingual and multi-cultural Malaysian society
her information sources originate from various autochthonous and immigrant
races which, ethnically, go to make up a mini-Asia, and it is interesting to
see how at the end of the millennium identity-projection is revealed to be both
personal as well as political; and that the identity symbols and features of
the society, of which « Malaysian English » forms an integral part,
are above-all considered indigenous.
One of her conclusions that identity-building does not find a breeding ground
in homogeneity augurs well for the country.
In
a re-written interview that I have translated from the French, Alexis Rygaloff, one of the foremost
linguists of Far Eastern languages, undertakes to work out hypotheses relating
to the Chinese language and culture by drawing on the advantages of character
writing as opposed to the pinyin (the
romanisation of characters). The return to the older character writing
practice, he avers, has far-reaching effects in the maintenance of greater
Chinese cultural stability in the region. An interview is neither an essay nor
an article. His subtle arguments and analyses serve here only as a point of
departure for further reflection.
Rama P.Coomaraswamy, a Harvard-trained
geologist and a New York-trained cardio-vascular surgeon and psychiatrist,
attempts in this essay (which unfortunately - due to illness - sometimes lacks
proper references) to set right the idée
reçu image of his erudite father, Ananda K. Coomaraswamy as being merely a
critic of Oriental art. As a devout Catholic, himself, he manages to give in
this essay through an examination of his father’s writings on the subject the
traditional or Catholic view of art, even if AKC himself, since 1907, turned to
Hinduism for his critical sources and inspiration. In a way, it is an homage to
one of the most illustrious Eurasians, and thus to both the broadly formative
cultural strains in the makeup of the present-day colonial-metropolitan,
Asian-industrial elite culture.
In
my own article on poietics: « The Exotic in Aesthetics: A Case Study
of Poietics as the Science and Philosophy of Creation », I try to give an
overview of what has been introduced on this « new » subject of
research mainly in France and India, and subject its formulating and/or
fundamental principles to the test in the art of translation and/or trans-creation
from mainly Malay and Tamil poetry, though the article as a whole constitutes a
critique of the subject when taken to be an integral part of aesthetics.
Acknowledgements
Inclusion in this Special 2000 Number of the journal has been through invitations
I’ve extended to various personalities and academics. Not all could respond
positively, chief among the reasons being time. I started the process of
inviting contributions only in November 1999. Some did not respond at all. Of
those who did, may I take this opportunity of most warmly thanking: Leslie G. Fiedler, Distinguished Professor at the State
University of New York at Buffalo; Edward
W.Said, Old Dominion Foundation Professor in the Humanities at Columbia
University; Balachandra Rajan, former
Director of Studies at Trinity College, Cambridge University, and former
Professor of English at Delhi University; Monsieur André Fontaine, former Editor-in-Chief and Director of Le Monde in Paris; and The Rt.Hon. Khushwant Singh, former Editor-in-Chief
of the Indian Express. And of course
a very warm welcome and hearty thanks to all those who accepted to participate
in this collection of essays and articles dealing with Asian languages,
linguistics, sociolinguistics, literatures, literary theory, art, education,
aesthetics, history, commerce and politics.
Due
thanks are proffered and acknowledgements made for the following articles and
essays:
To
Dr.Rama P. Coomaraswamy for his father’s essay: « Introduction to the Art
of Eastern Asia » which last appeared in Coomaraswamy: Traditional Art and Symbolism. Ed. Roger Lipsey.
Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1977, pp. 101-127; the same
collection was published by Oxford University Press in India, paperback edition
in 1986.
An
earlier version of Professor Wang Gungwu’s essay appeared in the Far Eastern Economic Review in June
1999.
Dr.Rama P.Coomaraswamy’s essay « The Art of Living » is to
appear this year as an introduction to a collection of his father’s essays on
art to be published by Fons Vitae.
References
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Dead
(White Male
Orientalist) Horse » in The Journal
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Affairs, Vol.
72, No.3.
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Lengyel, Alfonz. Fall 1998.
« Correspondence » in Asian
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(Ann Arbor, Michigan).
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« Shame, the Virtual Weapon, » in Newsweek,
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